Statement I is correct because many urban centres such as Rajagaha, Kaushambi, and Ujjayini served as capitals of mahajanapadas. Statement III is also correct as excavations have yielded ornaments of ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta. Statement II is incorrect because many ancient cities remain inhabited today, making large-scale excavation difficult.

Votive inscriptions, often associated with donations to religious establishments, record the names and occupations of donors. These inscriptions provide evidence about scribes, officials, artisans, merchants, and religious teachers living in towns. Royal and prashasti inscriptions focus mainly on rulers, while copper plates generally record land grants.

Pataliputra began as the village of Pataligrama and later developed into a major imperial capital. Magadhan rulers shifted their capital there because it occupied a strategic position controlling important river routes. This facilitated trade, administration, and military movement, directly contributing to the city's remarkable growth and prominence.

Pataliputra was the Magadhan capital located on the Ganga (d). Puhar functioned as an important maritime centre and sea-route starting point (c). Ujjayini was a major land-route hub (a). Mathura developed into an important commercial and cultural centre (b). Therefore, Option B is correct.

Urban elites are associated with luxury consumption, including Northern Black Polished Ware, precious ornaments, and residence in fortified political centres. Hoes and iron ploughshares were agricultural implements used by cultivators. Therefore, Option A incorrectly attributes direct agricultural labour as a characteristic feature of urban elites.

Northern Black Polished Ware emerged around the sixth century BCE with urbanisation. Votive inscriptions mentioning guilds became common by the second century BCE. Kushana gold coins appeared from the first century CE. Xuan Zang visited India in the seventh century CE and found Pataliputra largely in ruins. Therefore, the correct order is 2 → 4 → 3 → 1.

Shrenis (guilds) organized artisans and merchants engaged in specific crafts. Their responsibilities extended beyond marketing goods to procuring raw materials, supervising production, maintaining standards, and coordinating economic activities. They were economic organizations rather than military bodies, tax authorities, or exclusive coin-minting institutions.

Craftspersons employed iron tools to manufacture goods demanded by urban elites, making the Assertion correct. However, iron tools were not restricted to crafts. Iron ploughshares and agricultural implements were widely used in farming and contributed to agricultural expansion. Therefore, the Reason is false and Option D is correct.

Major overland routes connected the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. These routes facilitated trade, cultural exchange, and movement of people. They later became important segments of wider transcontinental networks. The other regions listed were not directly connected through the overland routes described in NCERT.

Statement 1 is correct because maritime routes connected India with West Asia and North Africa. Statement 3 is also correct since successful merchants accumulated great wealth through long-distance trade. Statement 2 is incorrect because sea voyages involved storms, piracy, navigational uncertainties, and other risks. Hence, only 1 and 3 are correct.

Masattuvan was the Tamil term for a prosperous merchant (d). Setthi was the Prakrit term for a successful merchant (a). Satthavaha referred to caravan merchants (c). Uzhavar denoted ploughmen in Tamil society (b). Thus, the correct matching is 1-d, 2-a, 3-c, 4-b.

Caravan merchants generally moved along land routes using pack animals and bullock carts. Peddlers often travelled on foot, and rulers tried to control trade routes to collect taxes or protection charges. Option B is incorrect because caravans were overland trading groups, not ship-based river traders.

Indian spices, especially pepper, were highly valued in the Roman Empire. This strong demand encouraged extensive maritime trade across the Arabian Sea. Thus, the export of spices was directly linked to overseas demand. Both the Assertion and Reason are correct, and the Reason properly explains the Assertion.

Indian textiles were among the most sought-after exports in ancient overseas trade. Along with spices and medicinal plants, fine textiles travelled across the Arabian Sea to Mediterranean markets. Iron ploughshares, raw timber, and unprocessed clay were not major luxury exports comparable to textiles.

The passage explicitly states that south India was not part of the Roman Empire, yet Roman coins are found there. This demonstrates extensive trade networks that crossed political boundaries. The evidence reflects commercial interaction rather than conquest, foreign rule, or the absence of local currency systems.

The passage highlights long-distance trade extending beyond political frontiers. Similarly, maritime routes across the Bay of Bengal connected India with Southeast Asia and China. These networks facilitated exchanges of goods, ideas, and people across vast distances. The other options involve either internal or geographically restricted routes.

Numismatists do not universally agree that the earliest punch-marked coins were issued exclusively by wealthy merchants. Many scholars associate them with political authorities and ruling dynasties. Symbols on several punch-marked coins have been linked to dynasties such as the Mauryas. Therefore, the Assertion is false, while the Reason is true.

The Gupta rulers issued some of the finest and purest gold coins in ancient India. Their excellent craftsmanship and high gold content made them ideal for high-value and long-distance transactions. Mauryan, Shaka, and Satavahana coinage was significant but did not achieve the same reputation for purity and artistry.

Statement II is correct because fewer surviving hoards may indicate that coins remained in circulation. Statement III is also accepted since changes in long-distance trade followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire. Statement I is incorrect because historians do not regard fewer gold coins as conclusive proof of total economic collapse.

The Yaudheyas and several other tribal republics issued their own coins, demonstrating participation in trade, political authority, and economic exchange. Therefore, Option C is incorrect. Options A, B, and D are historically supported by numismatic evidence regarding Gupta, Kushana, and punch-marked coinage.