Robert Redfield used the concepts of \"Great Tradition\" and \"Little Tradition\" while studying peasant societies. The Great Tradition referred to elite, textual, and formal religious practices, while the Little Tradition referred to local customs and folk beliefs. NCERT uses these concepts to explain interactions between dominant Sanskritic traditions and regional religious practices. Tribal, urban, and nomadic societies were not the specific basis of this classification.

The assertion is correct because many religious beliefs emerged through interaction between Sanskritic traditions and local practices. The reason is false because Brahmanical traditions often absorbed and adapted local deities, customs, and rituals instead of completely rejecting them. Examples include incorporation of regional goddesses and local sacred sites into wider Puranic traditions. Hence A is true and R is false.

Saguna Bhakti refers to devotion towards a deity with recognizable form and attributes, hence it matches anthropomorphic deities (c). Nirguna Bhakti stresses worship of the formless or abstract God (d). In Sufi traditions, Zikr (a) means remembrance of God through recitation of divine names, while Sama\' (b) refers to mystical listening to devotional music. Therefore, the correct matching is 1-c, 2-d, 3-a, 4-b, making Option D correct.

NCERT notes that local goddess traditions were incorporated into wider Puranic worship. Many local goddesses represented by stones smeared with ochre were identified as wives of major deities such as Shiva or Vishnu. This process reflects religious assimilation. Tantric practices did not universally reject idols, Vedic gods became less central, and Lingayats opposed elaborate ritual worship.

Kabir\'s teachings focused on a formless divine reality and transcended religious boundaries. He used terms from both Hindu and Islamic traditions and expressed mystical ideas through ulatbansi. He criticized external rituals, including empty idol worship and rigid religious formalism. Therefore the statement that he defended polytheism and idol worship is incorrect.

Tevaram was compiled around the 10th–11th century. Guru Nanak organized followers during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The Bijak was compiled after Kabir\'s death. Guru Gobind Singh finalized the Guru Granth Sahib in the early 18th century. Hence the correct order is 1, 3, 2, 4.

The passage directly states that historians attribute hostility toward Buddhism and Jainism to competition for royal patronage. Kings provided grants, prestige, and institutional support. Rival religious traditions therefore competed for influence at royal courts. The passage does not mention Vedic disputes, architecture, or pilgrimage routes as primary reasons.

The passage explicitly states that hostility toward Buddhism and Jainism is particularly marked in the compositions of the Nayanars. These Shaiva saints composed devotional hymns praising Shiva and often criticized rival religious traditions. The statement directly identifies the group, making Nayanars the correct answer.

The assertion is true because deities such as Agni and Indra became less important in popular devotional worship. The reason is also true since Shiva, Vishnu, and the Goddess became central figures in Puranic mythology and temple worship. Their rise directly explains why earlier Vedic deities became marginal. Therefore R correctly explains A.

Appar was a major Shaiva saint whose hymns were compiled in the Tevaram. Andal\'s devotional compositions became part of the Nalayira Divyaprabandham. Basavanna is famous for Vachanas within the Virashaiva tradition. Guru Arjan compiled the Adi Granth Sahib. Therefore the correct matching is 1-b, 2-d, 3-a, 4-c.

Ziyarat refers to visiting the tombs or shrines of Sufi saints to seek spiritual grace (barakat). It became an important feature of popular Sufi practice in South Asia. Hajj refers to pilgrimage to Mecca, Sama\' is devotional music, and Zikr is remembrance of God through repetition of divine names. Therefore, Ziyarat is the correct answer.

NCERT explains that local deities and sacred sites were often incorporated into broader religious traditions. Jagannatha at Puri is cited as an example where a regional deity was recognized as a form of Vishnu. Such integration strengthened links between local practices and mainstream religious traditions. The other options contradict historical evidence of state patronage and shrine development.

Bhakti movements often questioned rigid social barriers, but Brahmanas did not universally lose their role as religious intermediaries. In many devotional traditions, Brahmanical authority remained influential. Tantric practices frequently ignored caste distinctions, Lingayats attracted marginalized groups, and followers of Kabir and Guru Nanak came from diverse social backgrounds. Hence Option B is the incorrect statement.

The Dharmashastras belong to the early historical period and come first. Appar lived during the 7th century CE. Basavanna and the Lingayat movement emerged in the 12th century and challenged caste distinctions. Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa Panth in 1699 CE. Therefore the correct chronological order is 3, 1, 4, 2.

The Nalayira Divyaprabandham is the major Tamil Vaishnava devotional collection. The Tevaram contains Tamil Shaiva hymns. Vachanas are associated with the Virashaiva/Lingayat tradition led by Basavanna and others. Maktubat refers to collections of Sufi letters. Therefore the correct matching is 1-d, 2-c, 3-a, 4-b.

Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru, incorporated the compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru, into the Sikh scripture. The finalized scripture became the Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Arjan compiled the Adi Granth earlier, Guru Angad was the second Guru, and Baba Farid was a Sufi saint whose hymns were already included but he was not the ninth Guru.

Andal\'s devotional poetry expressed intense personal love for Vishnu and portrayed herself as his beloved. By placing divine devotion above conventional social expectations surrounding marriage and gender roles, her compositions challenged patriarchal norms. Thus both the assertion and reason are true, and the reason correctly explains the assertion.

NCERT notes that women poet-saints often responded creatively to social constraints and changing circumstances through devotional compositions. Their works reveal engagement with issues of gender, devotion, and social expectations. There is no evidence that all women formed nunneries. Mirabai rejected conventional expectations, and Jahanara\'s writings contributed significantly to Sufi traditions.

Sufi orders maintained diverse relationships with political authority. Although some saints preferred distance from rulers, many hospices received endowments and support. Sultans sought spiritual legitimacy through association with Sufis. Delhi Sultans established auqaf, and Akbar patronized the Chishti shrine at Ajmer. Therefore the claim of complete isolation and rejection of all grants is incorrect.

The Pallava and Pandya states emerged between the sixth and ninth centuries CE. Chola temple construction at Thanjavur belongs mainly to the 10th–11th centuries. Ghiyasuddin Khalji\'s patronage of the Ajmer tomb occurred in the early 14th century. Akbar\'s construction within the Ajmer dargah complex occurred in the 16th century. Thus the correct sequence is 2, 4, 3, 1.